IMPLEMENTATION OF CHILDREN'S RIGHTS IN INDONESIA
(Study of Efforts to Protect Child Victims of Violence During the Conflict in Maluku)
By: John Dirk Pasalbessy
Abstract
Fulfillment of child welfare through a multi-faceted protection approach that has been attempted so far has not been satisfactory. It is acknowledged that although child protection and child welfare policies have accommodated various interests, if they are not supported by supporting facilities and infrastructure, they are unlikely to produce results. In the context of human rights protection, child protection is not merely a national issue of a nation, but also an international issue. This is evident in several international documents that list children's rights, both in the social, cultural, economic, political, and legal fields, which were ratified into force by Presidential Decree No. 36 of 1990.
To protect the welfare of children in Indonesia, Law Number 39 of 1999 concerning Human Rights serves as an umbrella law for children's interests across various regulations. Regarding child victims of violence in Maluku, both during and after the conflict, little can be expected. To date, support for child victims of violence in Maluku has been largely provided by non-governmental organizations rather than the government. Therefore, the future challenge is how to implement the rights of child victims of violence in Maluku to restore their normal lives.
A. Background
Generally, when discussing the implementation of rights in relation to legislation in Indonesia, people often associate it with the application of legal rules. This view is not incorrect because, functionally, law (in the sense of statutes) can be viewed from various perspectives, and in concrete situations, law is seen and assessed as what should happen.
Purnadi Purbacaraka and Soerjono Soekanto (1979) acknowledge that, as a cultural and social subsystem, law has certain functions, including maintaining patterns and integrity. The answer to this function can be approached from an understanding of the concept of law itself. According to these two legal experts, the possible meanings given to law include:
a. Law in the sense of discipline, namely a system of teachings;
b. Law in the sense of science;
c. Law in the sense of rules;
d. Law in the sense of legal order;
e. Law in the sense of officers;
f. Law in the sense of official decisions;
g. Law in the sense of the process of government;
h. Law in the sense of “constant” behavior;
i. Law in the sense of a web of values.
Regardless of such perceptions, what is clear is that if examined from a policy perspective (policy) between the implementation (application) legal rules with the law-making process (law making process) there is integration (integrated), in the sense of synchronous (harmonious, in tune, balanced), good in terms of aspects substance, structure nor culture the law (statute) itself.
Similarly, the implementation of children's rights in various laws in Indonesia has been challenging. The various comments coming from various segments of society regarding the lives and future of children have been a form of correction and a hope that children will receive protection in accordance with their dignity and worth. This view is justified, as the fulfillment of children's rights remains far from what is expected, even though, in society everywhere, children are often used as a reason to change certain situations.
The implementation of children's rights is an effort to synchronize the rights and freedoms of children, which are recognized as fundamental and natural rights, inherent from birth as part of human rights. These rights are recognized and protected, both universally for all nations of the world, and through recognition and protection under a country's national law. Legal recognition and protection of various children's rights and freedoms (fundamental rights and freedom of children) This is intended to fulfill various interests related to the welfare and future of children.
In its development, child protection has been going on for a long time. The emergence of juvenile courts (juvenile court) first in the area Illinois United States in 1899 which was based on “principle of parentage” signifies a strong desire for children to be protected. This struggle was then continued with the adoption of UN Resolution No. 1386 (XIV), 20 November 1959, which then culminated in UN Resolution No. 44/25, dated 20 November 1989 concerning “Convention on the Rights of the Child”, where the spirit of this resolution is seen in the Preamble, namely “Humanity has an obligation to provide the best for children.”
The Convention on the Rights of the Child holds significant significance in the context of the struggle for and protection of children within the international community. Therefore, the next question is: (a) to what extent have these children's rights been implemented in Indonesian legislation? (b) has this implementation provided meaning and hope for the future of children? (c) what about children who are in situations and affected by social and military conflicts, such as in Aceh, Papua, Maluku, Posso, and several other regions?
The implementation of children's rights outlined in child protection efforts has a broad scope, considering that children's welfare does not only cover social and economic needs, but also other aspects, such as protection in the field of justice, abandoned children, street children, children who are victims of violence, both physical and sexual, and so on. This idea is in line with the definition of child protection as referred to in Article 1 of Law Number: 23 of 2000 concerning Child Protection, which states that child protection is:
All activities to guarantee and protect children and their rights so that they can live, grow, develop and participate optimally in accordance with human dignity and honor, and receive protection from violence and discrimination.
The meaning, significance, essence, and purpose of child protection at least provide clarity that children and all their inherent rights deserve guaranteed protection, whether social, cultural, economic, political, or legal. This is intended to ensure that children, as they develop, have the right to live and develop according to their intellectual abilities, and through these abilities, children are able to adapt to their peers, their parents, and other human beings in accordance with their dignity and worth.
B. Children's Rights in International Documents
The provisions on children's rights in various declarations and instruments include quite extensive protection, not only regarding economic, social and cultural rights, but also including protection in the judicial field, as we find in several documents, including (UN, 1993):
1. The Geneva Declaration on the Rights of the Child of 1924, which was later confirmed in UN General Assembly Resolution No. 1386 (XIV), dated 20 November 1959 concerning “Declaration of the Rights of the Child”;
2. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 40/33 of 30 November 1985 concerning United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice (The Beijing Rules);
3. United Nations General Assembly Resolution No. 40/85, dated 29 November 1985 concerning The Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency”;
4. UN General Assembly Resolution No. 41/85 dated 3 December 1986 recognized Declaration of an Social and Legal Principles Relating to the Protection and Welfare of Children, with Special Reference to Foster Care and Adoption Nationally and Internationally:
5. United Nations General Assembly Resolution No. 43/121 dated 8 December 1988 concerning "the use of children in the illicit traffic in narcotic drugs",
6. United Nations General Assembly Resolution No. 44/25 dated 20 November 1989 concerning Convention on the Rights of the Child”;
7. ECOSOC Resolution 1990/33, dated 26 May 1990 concerning “The Prevention of Drug Conemption among young persons”;
8. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 45/112 of 14 December 1990 concerning “United Nations Guidelines for the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency” (The Riyadh Guidelines);
9. United Nations General Assembly Resolution No. 45/113, dated 14 December 1990 concerning “United Nations Rules for the Protection of Juveniles Deprived of Their Liberty”;
10. United Nations General Assembly Resolution No. 45/115 of 14 December 1990 concerning “The Instrumental use of children in criminal activities:;
11. UN Human Rights Commission Resolution (Commission on Human Rights) 1993/80, dated 10 March 1993 concerning “The application of the international standards concerning the human rights of detained juveniles”;
12. Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1990/90 of 9 March 1994 concerning “The Aced to adopt effective international measures for the prevention and eradication of the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography”:;
13. Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1994/92 of 9 March 1994 concerning “The Special Reporting on the sale of children, child prostitution and pornography”;
14. Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1994/93 of 9 March 1994 concerning “The Light of Street Children”;
15. Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1991/93 of 9 March 1994 concerning “The effects of armed conflicts on children's lives”;
16. The 9th UN Congress in 1995, concerning "The Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders", who submitted 2 (two) draft resolutions, namely:
§ Application of United Nations Standards and Norms in Juvenile Justice (Document A/CONF. 159/15) and;
§ Elemenation of Viol for Again Children.
This international document/instrument is the basis for consideration and protection at the international level, although it must be acknowledged that it is still in the form of an agreement. (declaration), or also a mutual agreement/agreement (convention), nor resolution, but should be considered as a guideline (guidelines). It is clear that this international document is a reflection of the awareness and concern of the international community regarding the protection of the sad plight that has befallen millions of children throughout the world today.
The recognition and protection of children as described in the various international documents/instruments above is a commitment of the community of nations, which is not only aimed at children's rights in general, but also includes a commitment to protecting the rights of children with physical and mental problems. (mental) as well as social, cultural, economic and political. Meanwhile, efforts to protect children's rights are very much determined by the existence of child protection policies. (child protection policy) and child welfare policies (child welfare policy) which is conducive to efforts to protect children's rights. (Hadisuprapto, 1996)
International instruments regarding the protection of children's rights as stated in UN Resolution 44/25 dated 20 November 1898 concerning Convention on the Rights of the Child (Convention on the Rights of the Child), which was then regulated in UN Resolution 1386/XIV, dated 20 December 1959 concerning Declaration of the Rights of the Chlid (Declaration of the Rights of the Child, 1959), contains 10 (ten) basic principles, which include:
1. Children have the right to enjoy all their rights in accordance with the provisions contained in this Declaration. That every child without exception must have their rights guaranteed without distinction of race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other views, nationality or social class, wealth or poverty, birth or other status, whether in themselves or their families;
2. Children have the right to receive special protection and must receive opportunities guaranteed by law and other means, so that they are able to develop themselves physically, mentally, morally, spiritually and socially in a healthy, normal situation in accordance with their freedom and dignity.
3. Children from birth have the right to a name and nationality;
4. Children have the right and must be guaranteed socially to grow and develop healthily;
5. Children who are physically or mentally disabled and have a weak social status due to certain circumstances must receive special education, care and treatment;
6. In order for a child's personality to grow optimally and harmoniously, he needs love and understanding. As far as possible, he will be raised under the care and responsibility of his own parents, and in any case, efforts must be made to remain in an atmosphere full of affection. Physically and spiritually healthy;
7. Children have the right to receive free, compulsory education at least up to the elementary school level. They must receive protection that will enhance their general knowledge, or that will enable them, on the basis of equal opportunity, to develop their abilities, personal opinions, and sense of moral and social responsibility, so that they may become useful members of society. Children also have the freedom to play and engage in recreation directed toward educational purposes. Society and the competent authorities must strive to promote the implementation of this right.
8. Under any circumstances, children must be prioritized in receiving protection and assistance;
9. Children must be protected from all forms of neglect, violence, and exploitation. They must not be subjected to trafficking, meaning that children must not work before a certain age, and must not be involved in work that could harm their health or education, or that could affect their physical, mental, or moral development.
10. Children must be protected from actions that lead to social, religious or other forms of discrimination.
These ten principles are “declaratory statement”, which is more of a nature “binding piece of international legislation”, namely a provision that is more binding and detailed and is contained in the articles of the convention. Therefore, the basic principles of child protection are a reflection of an approach that is holistic, meaning that children's rights are not seen narrowly, but must be seen broadly, according to the scope of human rights protection, such as civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights.
C. Issue of the Need for Child Protection
Based on the regulations and guarantees of legal protection for children's rights as stated in the international declaration/instrument above, legal protection for children's rights covers various aspects of life, such as:
1. Protection of children's human rights and freedoms;
2. Protection of children in the judicial process;
3. Protection of child welfare (in the family environment, education and social environment);
4. Protection of children in cases of detention and deprivation of liberty;
5. Protection of children from all forms of exploitation (slavery, child trafficking, prostitution and pornography, drug trafficking and abuse, using children to commit crimes);
6. Protection of street children;
7. Protection of children from the consequences of war/armed conflict;
8. Protection of children from acts of violence
The scope of child protection as identified above does not only include protection in the judicial process or for children with problems, but also covers various aspects of children's lives.
At a meeting of the UN group of experts (United Nations Experts Group Meeting) in Vienna, Austria, 1994 child protection should be emphasized in efforts to overcome problems (Barda Nawawi Arief, 1997)
1. Working Children, where many children are full-time workers, (full-time child labor) child trafficking (sale for children), child prostitution (child prostitution), child slavery (child bondage), child pornography (child pornography) due to increasing "sex tourism"';
2. Street Children, where it is estimated that there are around 100-150 million street children worldwide today. What is worrying is that besides struggling to survive materially, they are also targets of abuse and exploitation, such as street theft, street prostitution, drug trafficking, and other organized crime activities;
3. Children in armed conflict, In conflict situations, many children become victims, including those killed, maimed, displaced, and even missing. This is not to mention those who become victims of rape and suffer from mental stress. (stress and trauma). The difficult problem to face is providing guidance and reorienting them from a conflict situation/culture to a culture of peace. (culture of peace);
4. Urban war zones, where there is an atmosphere of violence and instability in everyday life both in cities and in rural areas “war zone” which puts children at serious risk (grave risk), especially if poverty, drug and weapon use and crime are everyday realities;
5. The Instrumental use of Chlidern, which is a special problem among experts at a meeting in Rome, Italy in 1992. This problem was also made a Recommendation of the 8th UN Congress/1990 which then became UN Resolution No. 45/115 of 1990. It was emphasized that one of the conducive factors for the practice of exploiting children in/to commit crimes is the absence of a special law that criminalizes adults who exploit children.
What has been accommodated above is quite reasonable, as it turns out that child protection efforts are rational efforts that must be addressed collectively, not by individuals alone. Therefore, it is necessary to question the extent to which this policy has been implemented. (policy) government's response to child protection so far.
Arif Gosita (1983: 169) when discussing the issue of child protection emphasized:
In order to discuss child protection issues, we need to have a proper understanding of justice. An individual's sense of justice will influence the continuity of child protection activities. Justice here is a condition in which everyone can exercise their rights and obligations rationally, responsibly, and beneficially.
Gosita further said, "If it is related to child protection, then where there is justice, there should also be good child protection."
In Articles 2, 3 and 4 of Law Number: 4 of 1979 concerning Child Welfare, it is emphasized that "Children have the right to care and protection, both in the womb and after birth". Children also have the right to protection against environmental factors that may harm or hinder normal growth and development.
This statement is intended to emphasize and encourage us all that child protection, in the context of promoting child welfare and fair treatment, is a vital part of life. Therefore, it is natural that child protection (child welfare) is a shared responsibility between the government and society. Law Number 23 of 2002 concerning Child Protection states that child welfare is: "the right of every child to live, grow, develop and participate fairly in accordance with human dignity and honor, and to receive protection from violence and discrimination."
Thus, it becomes clear that child protection efforts in the sense of striving for children's welfare, apart from being a call and aspiration of the international community, are also a national commitment to protect children from the various problems they face.
The question now is how to implement child protection as accommodated in the Declaration of the Rights of the Child so far.
D. Implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child
The implementation of children's rights as stated in international documents/instruments over the past few years has been evident in several laws and regulations in Indonesia, such as:
1. Presidential Decree No. 36 of 1990 concerning the Ratification of the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
2. Law Number: 4 of 1979 concerning Child Welfare.
This law states the RIGHTS OF CHILDREN, which include:
a) The right to welfare, care, upbringing and guidance based on love, both within the family and in special care to grow and develop their abilities and social life.
b) The right to services to develop one's abilities and social life;
c) The right to care and protection, both during pregnancy and after birth;
d) The right to protection of the environment that endangers or hinders its natural growth and development.
The realization of these children's rights is indeed important and depends on the extent to which parents fulfill their responsibilities in meeting their various needs, both physical, spiritual, and social. Parents who are proven to have neglected their responsibilities, resulting in obstacles to their child's development and growth, may have their parental authority revoked through legal action, without eliminating their obligation to finance the child's livelihood, care, and education.
3. Law Number: 23 of 1997 concerning Juvenile Courts;
This law is more procedural in nature, where the substance regulates more about how children are treated during and in the examination process at the court, both in civil and criminal cases.
Meanwhile, it is necessary to understand that the involvement of the court in the lives of children and their families is always aimed at efforts to overcome the bad conditions of children, violations of the law committed by children, child neglect, and child exploitation.
In the field of civil justice, child protection can include:
a) Status of legitimate children and inheritance law;
b) Recognition and validation of illegitimate children;
c) Parents' obligations towards children;
Meanwhile, in the criminal justice sector, matters relating to the examination process at the investigation, prosecution, court hearing, and even serving of sentence are regulated. The regulation elucidates Articles 37 and 40 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, which include:
a) The right not to be tortured or subjected to criminal or cruel, inhumane or degrading treatment;
b) The right to impose the death penalty or life imprisonment on children under 18 years of age;
c) The right to arrest, detention and imprisonment is only applied to children as a measure of last resort and for a very short period of time;
d) The right to separation from adults and the right to have relations with one's family;
e) The right to be deprived of liberty unlawfully or arbitrarily;
f) Right to legal aid;
g) The right to be treated in ways that are in accordance with the child's understanding of his or her dignity and worth, taking into account age when brought to court or taking into account age when sentenced to a criminal offence;
h) Rights guaranteed by law, namely:
(1) The principle of presumption of innocence;
(2) Prompt and direct notification of the contents of the accusation through parents, guardians or legal representatives;
(3) Dissolution of cases without delay and impartially;
(4) Involuntary examination;
(5) Review of decisions by higher bodies/authorities;
(6) Full respect for personal confidentiality;
i) The right to undergo punishment in a manner that is appropriate to their well-being and in balance with their environmental conditions and the offense they have committed;
4. Law Number: 39 of 1999 concerning Human Rights;
It is emphasized that Children's rights are human rights and for the benefit of children's rights, they are recognized and protected by law even from the time they are in the womb. (Article 52 paragraph 2 Law No. 39 of 1999)
Furthermore, several children's rights are recognized as regulated in Articles 52 to 66, such as:
a) The right to protection by parents, family, society and the state;
b) The right to life from the womb, to maintain life and improve one's standard of living;
c) The right to a name from birth and citizenship status;
d) The right to care, education, training and special assistance at state expense for children with physical or mental disabilities;
e) The right to worship according to one's religion, to think and express oneself;
f) The right to know one's parents, to be raised and cared for by one's own parents and/or guardian;
g) The right to be raised, cared for, cared for, educated, nurtured and guided in life by parents/guardians until adulthood;
h) The right to have adoptive parents/guardians;
i) The right to legal protection from various forms of physical and mental violence, neglect, ill-treatment and sexual harassment;
j) The right not to be separated from his parents, unless there is a valid reason and legal regulation in the best interests of the child;
k) The right to education and teaching;
l) The right to seek, receive and provide information according to one's intellectual level;
m) The right to rest, socialize with children of the same age, play, recreate according to one's interests, talents and level of intelligence for self-development;
n) The right to obtain adequate health services and social security;
o) The right not to be ignored in events of war, armed conflict, social unrest, and other events containing elements of violence;
p) The right to protection from economic exploitation activities, and any work that is dangerous to oneself;
q) The right not to be subjected to ill-treatment, torture or inhuman punishment;
r) The right not to be sentenced to death or life imprisonment;
s) The right not to be unlawfully deprived of liberty;
t) The right to receive and serve a prison sentence as a last resort;
u) The right to receive humane treatment with attention to personal development needs;
v) The right to obtain legal aid and other assistance;
w) The right to defend oneself and obtain justice before an objective and impartial juvenile court in a closed trial.
Children's rights in this law are rights that are recognized and protected, and are an umbrella law (umbrella act) which can be further elaborated into various sectoral laws.
5. Law Number: 2 of 1989 concerning National Education.
Article 5 of this law states, among other things, that "Every citizen has the same right to obtain education". The definition here is that everyone, including children, has the right to an education. This recognition applies not only to every physically and mentally healthy citizen (child), but also to those with physical and/or mental disabilities who are entitled to regular education (Article 8).
6. Law Number: 23 of 2002 concerning Child Protection
In this law it is stated that children's rights are human rights that must be guaranteed, protected and fulfilled by parents, family and society, government and the state.
Articles 4 to 18 state that children's rights include:
a) The right to live, grow and develop and participate fairly;
b) The right to a name as a form of identity and citizenship status;
c) The right to worship according to one's religion, to think and express oneself according to one's level of intelligence and age, under the guidance of one's parents;
d) The right to know one's parents, to be raised and cared for by one's own parents;
e) The right to health services and social security according to physical, mental, spiritual and social needs;
f) The right to education and teaching. Children with disabilities can receive special education, while those with special needs receive special education.
g) The right to express and have one's opinion heard, to receive, seek and provide information according to one's level of intelligence and age;
h) The right to rest and use free time, socialize with children of the same age, play, recreate according to one's interests and level of intelligence;
i) The rights of disabled children to receive rehabilitation, social assistance and maintenance of social welfare levels;
j) The right to be protected and treated from discrimination, exploitation, both economic and sexual, neglect, cruelty, violence, abuse, injustice, and other mistreatment.
k) The right to be raised by one's own parents;
l) The right to protection from abuse in political activities, involvement in armed conflict, involvement in social unrest, involvement in events containing elements of violence, and involvement in war;
m) The right to receive protection from being subjected to persecution or inhumane criminal punishment;
n) The right to obtain freedom according to law;
o) The right to receive humane treatment and to be separated from adults for children who are deprived of their liberty;
p) The right to legal aid;
q) The right to defend oneself and obtain justice in court.
r) The right to confidentiality for children who are victims of sexual violence or who are in conflict with the law;
s) The right to receive legal aid and other assistance;
7. Law Number: 12 of 1948 concerning Manpower,
Where it is emphasized that children are not allowed to do work, and young people are not allowed to do work at night.
Examined from a legal and political perspective, the implementation of children's rights in various regulations in Indonesia needs to be consistent, both in terms of substance, structure, and culture. This is intended to prevent recriminations between the government, as the protector of children's rights, and the role of parents and the community, including non-governmental organizations, as supporters. Clearly, child protection is a shared responsibility that must be carried out effectively and with a sense of justice.
In this context, efforts to fulfill children's welfare should be seen as an inseparable part of child protection policies. (child protection policy) and child welfare policies (child welfare policy)..
E. Rationalization of Protection for Child Victims of Violence in Maluku
Child protection efforts (child welfare) During and after the Maluku conflict, child victims of violence from 1999 to the present have not been optimal compared to what children face. It is acknowledged that child protection efforts should be carried out within the context of policy. (policy), namely efforts to allocate social and humanitarian interests that are the government's concern. Policy (policy) here it is formulated as a decision that outlines the most effective and efficient way to achieve a collectively determined goal. (Barda Nawawi Arief, 1996: 63)
It is undeniable that during the Maluku conflict, children who were victims of violence, including those who directly experienced its impact, were often neglected. Generally, children lived in a situation and culture of war when the conflict broke out. (Children in Armed Conflict), which results in displacement, suffering, misery, hunger and so on.
With only a limited food ration, these children are forced to accept what's available, without considering the nutritional value or quality of the food. There are no schools, no opportunities to play, not even jokes or laughter. There's only fear and the need to protect themselves from the whizzing bullets and the booming grenades and bombs.
When the conflict subsided, even though the atmosphere was still tense, with a spirit full of responsibility, volunteers from several non-governmental organizations in Ambon City tried to come and enter the refugee locations to raise the spirits of children through social rehabilitation programs. Emergency schools were established using worship buildings with rooms that could accommodate children, not needing capacity, the important thing was that the children could gather and listen to lessons. Teachers who were displaced were involved without questioning the background of the school's origin, the main concern at that time was that the children had to go to school, because for several years since the conflict broke out there had been no teaching and learning activities. The school curriculum used in this alternative education model was an adaptation to the existing conditions in addition to “trauma counseling”, by involving trained consular officers.
In such conditions, there is not much to be expected and in any case for two or three generations of children in Maluku will experience a downturn, considering that since the conflict, the use of a school location can be scheduled for use by 3 to 4 schools in a day, because of that the allocation of time for several subjects for one school is only prioritized on certain subjects.
This situation is uneven: some schools have the opportunity to conduct teaching and learning activities, while others are unable to do so at all. This is further exacerbated by the shortage of textbooks for both students and teachers.
The question now is how to effectively implement children's rights as they have been implemented in Indonesian laws and regulations. The answer is not easy, as protection efforts are a shared responsibility of all parties.
F. Closing
It turns out that efforts to fulfill children's welfare through various legal instruments in Indonesia have not been carried out optimally. Even though it is acknowledged that the implementation of children's rights has been clearly visible in various laws and regulations, it is just that it is not followed by clear protection policies, so that the seriousness to carry out protection efforts is still waiting for each other. Classic reasons such as limited allocated funds are not something that should be questioned, because child protection efforts do not lie solely in the issue of financing. What must be our concern is, whether there is seriousness or not towards child protection efforts so far.
Bibliography
Adji, Oemar Seno, Law and Criminal Law, Erlangga, Jakarta, 1984
Ancel, Marc, Social Defense a, modern approach to criminal problems, Routledge & Paul Kegan, London.
Arief, Barda Nawawi, Legislative Policy in Combating Crime with Imprisonment, Ananta, Semarang, 1994
————-, Anthology of Criminal Law Policy, Citra Aditya, Bandung, 1996
Gosita, Arif, Problems of Crime Victims, Akademika Presindd, Jakarta, 1983
————–, Child Protection, Presindo Academy, Jakarta, 1983
Hadisuprarto, Juvenile Delinquency (Understanding and Overcoming It), UNDIP, Semarang, 1996
Pasalbessy, Appropriate Criminal Actions for Children Who Are Permitted to Commit a Crime, Thesis, Faculty of Law, Universitas Pattimura, 1987
Pecker, Herberth, The Limits of Criminal Sanctions, Stanford, California, Stanford University Press, 1985
Soerjono, Sokanto, Law Enforcement, BPHN Ministry of Justice, 1983
Sudarto, Selected Chapters on Criminal Law, Alumni, Bandung, 1981
————, Law and Criminal Law, Alumni, Bandung, 1981
————, Criminal Law and Social Development, New Light, Bandung, 1983
Tappan, Paul, Juvenille Delinquency, Mc Graw Hill Book Company, Inc, 1949
United Nations, Human Rights A Compilation of International Instruments (Volume I Second Part) Universal Instruments
————, A Compilation of International Instruments (Volume II Forts Part) Universal Instruments
